{"id":1063,"date":"2023-05-22T09:55:59","date_gmt":"2023-05-22T09:55:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/meticsdemosite.com\/?p=335"},"modified":"2025-06-04T18:35:01","modified_gmt":"2025-06-04T16:35:01","slug":"termodynamika-bezpecnost","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.kint.cz\/de\/termodynamika-bezpecnost\/","title":{"rendered":"Termodynamika a bezpe\u010dnost"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t
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Historie a z\u00e1klady termodynamiky<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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Termodynamika, jako nauka o podm\u00ednk\u00e1ch vz\u00e1jemn\u00fdch p\u0159em\u011bn tepeln\u00e9 a mechanick\u00e9 energie, vznikala od 19. stolet\u00ed v souvislosti s v\u00fdvojem parn\u00edch stroj\u016f a pot\u0159eb\u011b zvy\u0161ov\u00e1n\u00ed jejich v\u00fdkonu a sni\u017eov\u00e1n\u00ed spot\u0159eby uhl\u00ed. Z\u00e1klady termodynamiky polo\u017eil po\u010d\u00e1tkem 19. stolet\u00ed mlad\u00fd francouzsk\u00fd fyzik Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot. Termodynamika je dnes v\u011bda o energii a entropii, tj. termodinamick\u00e9 z\u00e1kony maj\u00ed \u0161ir\u0161\u00ed platnost a vztahuj\u00ed se na v\u0161echny p\u0159em\u011bny energie\u00a01<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Termodynamika v praxi<\/figcaption>\n<\/figure>\n

Termodynamika je dle zdroje2<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0z\u0159ejm\u011b nejuniverz\u00e1ln\u011bj\u0161\u00ed fyzik\u00e1ln\u00ed teori\u00ed a to p\u0159edev\u0161\u00edm z pohledu jej\u00ed rozmanit\u00fdch aplikac\u00ed; umo\u017e\u0148uje pochopit nap\u0159. fungov\u00e1n\u00ed spalovac\u00edch motor\u016f, fyzik\u00e1ln\u00ed vlastnosti kondenzovan\u00fdch l\u00e1tek, ale i procesy prob\u00edhaj\u00edc\u00ed ve hv\u011bzd\u00e1ch a v galaxi\u00edch. Identick\u00fdm z\u00e1kon\u016fm termodynamiky podl\u00e9haj\u00ed klasick\u00e9 i kvantov\u00e9 syst\u00e9my. P\u0159edm\u011btem zkoum\u00e1n\u00ed termodynamiky jsou tedy termodynamick\u00e9 (makroskopick\u00e9) syst\u00e9my respektive soustavy, je\u017e dok\u00e1\u017eeme jednozna\u010dn\u011b a \u00fapln\u011b popsat pomoc\u00ed n\u011bkolika fyzik\u00e1ln\u00edch parametr\u016f (nap\u0159. hustota, objem, pru\u017enost, polarizace, magnetismus, koncentrace, tlak, atp.).<\/p>\n

Termodynamick\u00e9 soustavy<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0d\u011bl\u00edme podle vz\u00e1jemn\u00e9ho vztahu s okol\u00edm na:<\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 izolovan\u00e9<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 neinteraguj\u00ed s okol\u00edm; maj\u00ed konstantn\u00ed energii, objem a po\u010det \u010d\u00e1stic,<\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 uzav\u0159en\u00e9<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 maj\u00ed konstantn\u00ed objem a po\u010det \u010d\u00e1stic, ale prob\u00edh\u00e1 v\u00fdm\u011bna energie s okol\u00edm,<\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 otev\u0159en\u00e9<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 prob\u00edh\u00e1 zde v\u00fdm\u011bna energie i hmoty (po\u010det \u010d\u00e1stic).<\/p>\n

Dle m\u00edry stejnorodosti soustavy potom d\u011bl\u00edme na homogenn\u00ed (se stejn\u00fdmi vlastnostmi cel\u00e9 soustavy) nebo nehomogenn\u00ed.<\/p>\n

Dle typu \u0159e\u0161en\u00e9 \u00falohy termodynamiku d\u011bl\u00edme na:<\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 obecnou (resp. fyzik\u00e1ln\u00ed)<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 z\u00e1kladn\u00ed principy,<\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 technickou<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 aplikace obecn\u00e9 termodynamiky pro stavbu tepeln\u00fdch stroj\u016f,<\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 chemickou<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 aplikace v soustav\u00e1ch s fyzik\u00e1ln\u00edmi, fyzik\u00e1ln\u011b-chem. a chemick\u00fdmi d\u011bji.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Termodynamika stav\u00ed na \u0161esti postul\u00e1tech,<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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kter\u00e9 vznikli zobecn\u011bn\u00edm pozorovateln\u00fdch a experiment\u00e1ln\u011b ov\u011b\u0159iteln\u00fdch faktech, zdroj\u00a03<\/a><\/sup>:<\/p>\n

1. postul\u00e1t\u00a0<\/em>\u2013 o p\u0159echodu syst\u00e9mu do rovnov\u00e1\u017en\u00e9ho stavu: \u201eP\u0159i nem\u011bnn\u00fdch vn\u011bj\u0161\u00edch podm\u00ednk\u00e1ch dosp\u011bje ka\u017ed\u00fd syst\u00e9m do stavu termodynamick\u00e9 rovnov\u00e1hy\u201c.<\/em><\/p>\n

2. postul\u00e1t\u00a0<\/em>\u2013 \u201eVnit\u0159n\u00ed energie U je stavov\u00e1 extenzivn\u00ed veli\u010dina\u201c, tj. na U m\u00e1 vliv: sou\u010det kinetick\u00e9 energie pohybuj\u00edc\u00edch se \u010d\u00e1stic; potenci\u00e1ln\u00ed energie vz\u00e1jemn\u00e9ho p\u0159itahov\u00e1n\u00ed a odpuzov\u00e1n\u00ed \u010d\u00e1stic; energie z\u00e1\u0159en\u00ed uvnit\u0159 soustavy. Tj. na U nem\u00e1 vliv: pohyb a poloha soustavy jako celku.<\/p>\n

3. postul\u00e1t<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 tzv. 0. termodynamick\u00fd z\u00e1kon\u00a0\u201eJsou-li dv\u011b r\u016fzn\u00e1 t\u011blesa A a B v tepeln\u00e9 rovnov\u00e1ze (tzn. maj\u00ed stejnou teplotu) s t\u011blesem C, potom jsou v tepeln\u00e9 rovnov\u00e1ze (tzn. maj\u00ed stejnou teplotu) i navz\u00e1jem.<\/em>\u201c \u2013 tj. jestli\u017ee Ta\u00a0<\/sub>= Tb\u00a0<\/sub>\u00a0a Ta\u00a0<\/sub>= Tc\u00a0<\/sub>=> Ta\u00a0<\/sub>= Tc<\/sub>\u00a0.<\/p>\n

4. postul\u00e1t<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 I. z\u00e1kon termodynamiky pops\u00e1n n\u00ed\u017ee.<\/p>\n

5. postul\u00e1t\u00a0<\/em>\u2013 II. z\u00e1kon termodynamiky pops\u00e1n n\u00ed\u017ee.<\/p>\n

6. postul\u00e1t\u00a0<\/em>\u2013 III. z\u00e1kon termodynamiky pops\u00e1n n\u00ed\u017ee.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Termodynamick\u00e9 z\u00e1kony (v\u011bty)\n<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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I. z\u00e1kon termodynamiky<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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Prvn\u00ed termodynamick\u00fd z\u00e1kon je vyj\u00e1d\u0159en\u00ed z\u00e1kona o zachov\u00e1n\u00ed energie v termodynamice, kter\u00fd popisuje vztah tepla, pr\u00e1ce a vnit\u0159n\u00ed energii termodynamick\u00e9 soustavy. Vnit\u0159n\u00ed energie syst\u00e9mu (resp. soustavy) je dle\u00a04<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0jednozna\u010dnou funkc\u00ed jeho stavu a m\u011bn\u00ed se jen za p\u016fsoben\u00ed vn\u011bj\u0161\u00edch vliv\u016f.<\/p>\n

Z hlediska teoretick\u00e9 fyziky je prvn\u00ed termodynamick\u00fd z\u00e1kon formulov\u00e1n takto:<\/p>\n

\u0394U = W + Q, (1)<\/p>\n

Prvn\u00ed termodynamick\u00fd z\u00e1kon je z hlediska technick\u00e9 termodynamiky v\u00fdhodn\u011bj\u0161\u00ed definovat vztahem:<\/p>\n

\u0111Q = dU + \u0111W, (2)<\/p>\n

kde \u0111Q je teplo dodan\u00e9 termodynamick\u00e9 soustavy, kter\u00e9 se spot\u0159ebuje pro zm\u011bnu jej\u00ed vnit\u0159n\u00ed energie dU a vykon\u00e1n\u00ed pr\u00e1ce \u0111W t\u00e9to soustavy. Technick\u00e1 termodynamika dle (J. GRUBER)5<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0pova\u017euje pr\u00e1ci \u0111W za kladnou, pokud soustava pr\u00e1ci kon\u00e1, a za z\u00e1pornou, pokud soustava pr\u00e1ci spot\u0159ebov\u00e1v\u00e1, teplo\u00a0 \u0111Q je kladn\u00e9, pokud je p\u0159iv\u00e1d\u011bno, z\u00e1porn\u00e9, pokud jej soustava vyd\u00e1v\u00e1.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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II. z\u00e1kon termodynamiky<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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V\u00fd\u0161e zm\u00edn\u011bn\u00e9 zdroje uv\u00e1d\u00ed n\u00e1sleduj\u00edc\u00ed formulace:<\/p>\n

Tomson-Planck<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 Nen\u00ed mo\u017en\u00e9 sestrojit periodicky pracuj\u00edc\u00ed stroj, kter\u00fd by nezp\u016fsoboval \u017e\u00e1dn\u00fdch jin\u00fdch zm\u011bn, ne\u017e \u017ee by konal pr\u00e1ci na z\u00e1klad\u011b odn\u00edm\u00e1n\u00ed st\u00e1l\u00e9ho mno\u017estv\u00ed tepla zdroji o st\u00e1l\u00e9 teplot\u011b.<\/em><\/p>\n

Carnot-Clausius<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 Teplo samovoln\u011b nem\u016f\u017ee p\u0159ech\u00e1zet z t\u011blesa chladn\u011bj\u0161\u00edho na teplej\u0161\u00ed.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0Z\u00a0Carath\u00e9odoryho<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0formulace lze odvodit matematick\u00fd popis: \u201eV ka\u017ed\u00e9m okol\u00ed ka\u017ed\u00e9ho stavu teplotn\u011b homogenn\u00edho syst\u00e9mu existuj\u00ed stavy, k nim\u017e se nen\u00ed mo\u017eno libovoln\u011b p\u0159ibl\u00ed\u017eit adiabatickou zm\u011bnou stavov\u00fdch parametr\u016f.\u201c.<\/em><\/p>\n

Matematick\u00e1 formule pou\u017e\u00edv\u00e1 veli\u010dinu entropie S, zm\u011bnu entropie izolovan\u00e9 soustavy lze matematicky vyj\u00e1d\u0159it jako mno\u017estv\u00ed sd\u011blen\u00e9ho tepla p\u0159ipadaj\u00edc\u00edho na jeden teplotn\u00ed stupe\u0148:<\/p>\n

dS = \u0111Q \/ T.\u00a0(3)<\/p>\n

D\u016fle\u017eit\u00fdmi poznatky pro konstrukci tepeln\u00fdch stroj\u016f jsou (viz tak\u00e9 Obr\u00e1zek 1):<\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u2013 ka\u017ed\u00fd tepeln\u00fd motor mus\u00ed pracovat mezi dv\u011bma z\u00e1sobn\u00edky tepla,<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u2013 ze z\u00e1sobn\u00edku o vy\u0161\u0161\u00ed teplot\u011b odeb\u00edr\u00e1 tepelnou energii,<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u2013 \u010d\u00e1st odebran\u00e9 energie p\u0159em\u011bn\u00ed v pr\u00e1ci,<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u2013 zbytek odebran\u00e9 energie odv\u00e1d\u00ed do z\u00e1sobn\u00edku o ni\u017e\u0161\u00ed teplot\u011b.<\/em><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Z\u00e1kon termodynamiky: Analogie mezi vodn\u00edm a tepeln\u00fdm strojem (J. GRUBER) 6<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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III. z\u00e1kon termodynamiky<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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Planck\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>\u2013 e<\/em>ntropie \u010dist\u00e9 f\u00e1ze se s klesaj\u00edc\u00ed teplotou bl\u00ed\u017e\u00ed nule:<\/p>\n

\u00a0 limT\u21920<\/sub>\u00a0S = 0. (4)<\/p>\n

\u010cistou pevnou l\u00e1tku nelze kone\u010dn\u00fdm pochodem ochladit na nulovou Kelvinovu teplotu[1]. Z toho plyne, \u017ee lze pro prvky a slou\u010deniny spo\u010d\u00edtat absolutn\u00ed hodnotu entropie. Entropie umo\u017e\u0148uje graficky zn\u00e1zornit mno\u017estv\u00ed p\u0159iveden\u00e9ho a odveden\u00e9ho tepla.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Termodynamick\u00fd d\u011bj<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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Termodynamick\u00e9 d\u011bje jsou p\u0159echody soustav z jednoho stavu do druh\u00e9ho. U termodynamick\u00fdch d\u011bj\u016f dle zdroje\u00a07<\/a><\/sup>:<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0 hodnoty stavov\u00fdch veli\u010din (nap\u0159. vnit\u0159n\u00ed energie soustavy)\u00a0nez\u00e1vis\u00ed na zp\u016fsobu<\/em><\/strong>, jak\u00fdm zm\u011bna prob\u011bhla; m\u011bn\u00ed se bez ohledu na cestu, jakou tato zm\u011bna prob\u011bhla,<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0 hodnoty nestavov\u00fdch veli\u010din\u00a0z\u00e1vis\u00ed na zp\u016fsobu<\/em><\/strong>, jak\u00fdm zm\u011bna prob\u011bhla.<\/p>\n

D\u011bje se d\u00e1le d\u011bl\u00ed na: cyklick\u00e9 (kruhov\u00e9); vratn\u00e9 a nevratn\u00e9 (reverzibiln\u00ed \/ ireverzibiln\u00ed); p\u0159i konstantn\u00ed termodynamick\u00e9 veli\u010din\u011b.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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D\u011bje cyklick\u00e9, tepeln\u00e1 \u00fa\u010dinnost<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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Jestli\u017ee uva\u017eujeme periodicky (v cyklu) pracuj\u00edc\u00ed stroj, tak\u00a0pracovn\u00ed l\u00e1tka se mus\u00ed dostat do p\u016fvodn\u00edho stavu (cyklus uzav\u0159en\u00fd \u2013 viz obr\u00e1zek 2), nebo mus\u00ed b\u00fdt p\u0159iv\u00e1d\u011bna l\u00e1tka s konstantn\u00edmi po\u010d\u00e1te\u010dn\u00edmi parametry (cyklus otev\u0159en\u00fd \u2013 viz obr\u00e1zek 1 s konstantn\u00edmi parametry)<\/em>\u00a0\u2013\u00a0<\/em>tj. po\u010d\u00e1te\u010dn\u00ed vnit\u0159n\u00ed energie je rovna kone\u010dn\u00e9 vnit\u0159n\u00ed energie soustavy. \u010c\u00e1st tepla\u00a0 je nutn\u00e9 neust\u00e1le odv\u00e1d\u011bt, jeliko\u017e r\u016fstem vnit\u0159n\u00ed energie by se soustava neust\u00e1le zah\u0159\u00edvala, proto\u017ee prakticky nen\u00ed mo\u017en\u00e9, aby se ve\u0161ker\u00e9 p\u0159iveden\u00e9 teplo Op<\/sub>\u00a0p\u0159em\u011bnilo v pr\u00e1ci A).<\/p>\n

Technick\u00e1 pr\u00e1ce cyklu At\u00a0<\/sub>je rovna absolutn\u00ed pr\u00e1ci z\u00edskan\u00e9 A1<\/sub>\u00a0s ode\u010dten\u00edm absolutn\u00ed pr\u00e1ce vr\u00e1cen\u00e9 do cyklu A2<\/sub>\u00a0(J. GRUBER):<\/p>\n

At<\/sub>\u00a0= A1<\/sub>-A2<\/sub>. (5)<\/p>\n

Jak ji\u017e bylo jin\u00fdmi slovy \u0159e\u010deno v\u00fd\u0161e: \u201epouze \u010d\u00e1st p\u0159iveden\u00e9ho tepla (Qp<\/sub>) se m\u016f\u017ee vyu\u017e\u00edt ke kon\u00e1n\u00ed pr\u00e1ce (At<\/sub>), zbyl\u00e1 \u010d\u00e1st se mus\u00ed odv\u00e9st jako teplo odpadn\u00ed (resp. odveden\u00e9 Qo<\/sub>).<\/em>\u201c, proto plat\u00ed vztah:<\/p>\n

Qt<\/sub>\u00a0= At<\/sub>-Qo<\/sub>. (6)<\/p>\n

M\u00edrou teoretick\u00e9ho vyu\u017eit\u00ed p\u0159iveden\u00e9 energie je tepeln\u00e1 \u00fa\u010dinnost (J. GRUBER):<\/p>\n

\u03b7 = (Qp<\/sub>-Qo<\/sub>)\/(Qp<\/sub>) = 1 \u2013 (T2\u00a0<\/sub>\/ T1<\/sub>), (7)<\/p>\n

vzhledem k tomu, \u017ee prakticky nen\u00ed mo\u017en\u00e9, aby se technick\u00e1 pr\u00e1ce cyklu rovnala p\u0159iveden\u00e9mu teplu Qp<\/sub>, z\u00e1rove\u0148 nelze dos\u00e1hnout nekone\u010dn\u011b vysok\u00e9 teploty ani absolutn\u00ed nule, tzn. nelze dos\u00e1hnout \u00fa\u010dinnosti \u03b7=1 (J. GRUBER).<\/p>\n

P\u0159\u00edklad cyklick\u00e9ho d\u011bje je uveden na n\u00e1sleduj\u00edc\u00edch obr\u00e1zc\u00edch.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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P\u0159\u00edklad cyklick\u00e9ho d\u011bje \u2013 parn\u00ed elektr\u00e1rna<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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P\u0159\u00edklad cyklick\u00e9ho jevu \u2013 Tepeln\u00e9 \u010derpadlo \u2013 Herbertov<\/figcaption>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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D\u011bje p\u0159irozen\u00e9 a nep\u0159irozen\u00e9, d\u011bje vratn\u00e9 a nevratn\u00e9<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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Prvn\u00ed z\u00e1kon termodynamiky je tzv. z\u00e1konem kvantitativn\u00edm, proto\u017ee p\u0159ipou\u0161t\u00ed i pr\u016fb\u011bh tzv.\u00a0nep\u0159irozen\u00fdch<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0jev\u016f (nap\u0159. samovoln\u00fd p\u0159echod tepla z chladn\u011bj\u0161\u00edho t\u011blesa na teplej\u0161\u00ed). Nejobecn\u011bj\u0161\u00ed definice II. z\u00e1kona termodynamiky prav\u00ed: \u201eSamovoln\u00e9 d\u011bje v p\u0159\u00edrod\u011b sm\u011b\u0159uj\u00ed k m\u00e9n\u011b uspo\u0159\u00e1dan\u00fdm stav\u016fm<\/em>\u201c (J. GRUBER)\u00a08<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

D\u011bje vratn\u00e9\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>(reverzibiln\u00ed) lze vr\u00e1tit do v\u00fdchoz\u00edho stavu, proch\u00e1z\u00ed r\u016fzn\u00fdmi stavy stejn\u00fdmi stavy zp\u011bt do v\u00fdchoz\u00edho stavu; d\u011bje vratn\u00e9 jsou z\u00e1rove\u0148 rovnov\u00e1\u017en\u00e9 (kvazistatick\u00e9), tj. sledovan\u00e9 stavy jsou ust\u00e1len\u00e9 (z hlediska teplot, fyzik\u00e1ln\u00edho i chemick\u00e9ho slo\u017een\u00ed, silov\u00fdm p\u016fsoben\u00edm apod., termodynamick\u00e1 soustava m\u00e1 tedy ve v\u0161ech m\u00edstech stejn\u00e9 fyzik\u00e1ln\u00ed a chemick\u00e9 vlastnosti). II. z\u00e1kon termodynamiky pop\u00edr\u00e1 mo\u017enost vratn\u00fdch samovoln\u00fdch d\u011bj\u016f.<\/p>\n

D\u011bje nevratn\u00e9<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0(ireverzibiln\u00ed) nen\u00ed rovnov\u00e1\u017en\u00fd a nevrac\u00ed se do p\u016fvodn\u00edho stavu.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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D\u011bje p\u0159i konstantn\u00ed termodynamick\u00e9 veli\u010din\u011b<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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D\u011bje p\u0159i konstantn\u00ed termodynamick\u00e9 veli\u010din\u011b jsou n\u00e1sleduj\u00edc\u00ed, d\u011bj (pro zjednodu\u0161en\u00ed ve vztaz\u00edch uva\u017eujeme ide\u00e1ln\u00ed plyn), dle zdroje\u00a09<\/a><\/sup>:<\/p>\n

izotermick\u00fd\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>\u2013 d\u011bj, p\u0159i n\u011bm\u017e nedoch\u00e1z\u00ed ke zm\u011bn\u011b teploty (dT=0; dU=CV<\/sub>dT=0); ve\u0161ker\u00e9 dodan\u00e9 teplo se spot\u0159ebuje na vykon\u00e1n\u00ed pr\u00e1ce (dQ=dW).<\/p>\n

izobaricky\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>\u2013 d\u011bj, p\u0159i n\u011bm\u017e nedoch\u00e1z\u00ed ke zm\u011bn\u011b tlaku (dp=0); Teplo p\u0159ijat\u00e9 ide\u00e1ln\u00edm plynem p\u0159i izobarick\u00e9m d\u011bji se rovn\u00e1 sou\u010dtu p\u0159\u00edr\u016fstku jeho vnit\u0159n\u00ed energie a pr\u00e1ce, kterou plyn vykon\u00e1 (dQ=dU+W; dW=pdV),<\/p>\n

izochorick\u00fd\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>\u2013 d\u011bj, p\u0159i n\u011bm\u017e nedoch\u00e1z\u00ed ke zm\u011bn\u011b objemu (dV = 0); ve\u0161ker\u00e9 dodan\u00e9 teplo se spot\u0159ebuje na zv\u00fd\u0161en\u00ed vnit\u0159n\u00ed energie (dQ = dU),<\/p>\n

adiabatick\u00fd\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>\u2013 mezi plynem a okol\u00edm bu\u010f neprob\u00edh\u00e1 tepeln\u00e1 v\u00fdm\u011bna (jako v izolovan\u00fdch soustav\u00e1ch; dQ=0), nebo d\u011bj prob\u011bhne tak rychle, \u017ee se \u017e\u00e1dn\u00e1 tepeln\u00e1 v\u00fdm\u011bna nestihne uskute\u010dnit \u2013 re\u00e1ln\u00e9 d\u011bje b\u00fdvaj\u00ed na pomez\u00ed mezi d\u011bjem izotermick\u00fdm a adiabatick\u00fdm (tj. polytropick\u00fd d\u011bj); entropie se u adiabatick\u00e9ho d\u011bje nem\u011bn\u00ed; soustava kon\u00e1 pr\u00e1ci na \u00fakor vnit\u0159n\u00ed energie (dW=-dU); p\u0159i adiabatick\u00e9m stla\u010dov\u00e1n\u00ed plynu v n\u00e1dob\u011b se p\u016fsoben\u00edm vn\u011bj\u0161\u00ed s\u00edly na p\u00edst kon\u00e1 pr\u00e1ce, teplota plynu a jeho vnit\u0159n\u00ed energie se zv\u011bt\u0161uje; p\u0159i adiabatick\u00e9m rozp\u00edn\u00e1n\u00ed kon\u00e1 pr\u00e1ci plyn, teplota plynu i jeho vnit\u0159n\u00ed energie se zmen\u0161uje; adiabatick\u00e9ho rozp\u00edn\u00e1n\u00ed se pou\u017e\u00edv\u00e1 k dosa\u017een\u00ed n\u00edzk\u00fdch teplot; adiabatick\u00e9ho stla\u010dov\u00e1n\u00ed se pou\u017e\u00edv\u00e1 u vzn\u011btov\u00fdch motor\u016f \u2013 adiabatickou kompres\u00ed se zv\u00fd\u0161\u00ed teplota vzduchu na z\u00e1palnou teplotu nafty,<\/p>\n

izoentropick\u00fd<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 d\u011bj, p\u0159i kter\u00e9m nedoch\u00e1z\u00ed ke zm\u011bn\u011b entropie (dS=0).<\/p>\n

V praxi je v\u00fdhodn\u00e9 posuzovat uskute\u010dnitelnost samovoln\u011b prob\u00edhaj\u00edc\u00edho d\u011bje, kterou lze z II. Z\u00e1kona termodynamiky odvodit, viz n\u00e1sleduj\u00edc\u00ed obr\u00e1zek.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Krit\u00e9rium uskute\u010dnitelnosti termodynamick\u00e9ho jevu dle zdroje\u00a010<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Krit\u00e9rium pro izotermicko\u2013izobarick\u00fd d\u011bj na obr\u00e1zku zav\u00e1d\u00ed novou funkci, tzv. termodynamick\u00fd potenci\u00e1l, Gibbsova voln\u00e1 energie G, pro kterou plat\u00ed:<\/p>\n

G = U+pV\u2212TS. (8)<\/p>\n

Dal\u0161\u00edmi pou\u017e\u00edvan\u00fdmi termodynamick\u00fdmi potenci\u00e1ly jsou Helmholtzova voln\u00e1 energie F a entalpie H:<\/p>\n

F = U\u2212TS, (9)<\/p>\n

H = U+pV. (10)<\/p>\n

Jestli\u017ee nastane d\u011bj p\u0159i kter\u00e9m nedoch\u00e1z\u00ed ke zm\u011bn\u011b entalpie (dH), jde o tzv\u00a0izoentalpick\u00fd d\u011bj<\/em><\/strong>. Entalpie popisuje v\u00fdm\u011bnu tepla s okol\u00edm viz n\u00e1sleduj\u00edc\u00ed kapitola.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Exotermn\u00ed a endotermn\u00ed d\u011bje, termochemie<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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Exotermn\u00ed d\u011bj<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0je tepeln\u00e1 reakce, p\u0159i kter\u00e9m termodynamick\u00e1 soustava uvol\u0148uje teplo, tj. zm\u011bna entalpie je z\u00e1porn\u00e1 dH < 0.<\/p>\n

Endotermn\u00ed d\u011bj<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0je tepeln\u00e1 reakce, p\u0159i kter\u00e9 termodynamick\u00e1 soustava teplo p\u0159ij\u00edm\u00e1, tj. zm\u011bna entalpie je kladn\u00e1 dH > 0.<\/p>\n

Exotermn\u00edmi a endotermn\u00edmi d\u011bji se zab\u00fdv\u00e1 chemick\u00e1 termodynamika.<\/p>\n

Chemick\u00e1 termodynamika, tj. termochemie, aplikuje z\u00e1kladn\u00ed principy termodynamiky v soustav\u00e1ch, ve kter\u00fdch prob\u00edhaj\u00ed fyzik\u00e1ln\u00ed d\u011bje (nap\u0159.\u00a0f\u00e1zov\u00e9 zm\u011bny<\/em><\/strong>, tj. p\u0159echody), fyzik\u00e1ln\u011bchemick\u00e9 d\u011bje (nap\u0159.\u00a0rozpou\u0161t\u011bn\u00ed<\/em><\/strong>) a chemick\u00e9 d\u011bje (nap\u0159.\u00a0chemick\u00e9 reakce<\/em><\/strong>). Uveden\u00e9 fyzik\u00e1ln\u00ed, fyzik\u00e1ln\u011bchemick\u00e9 a chemick\u00e9 d\u011bje jsou v\u017edy spojen\u00e9 s tepelnou reakc\u00ed.<\/p>\n

F\u00e1zov\u00fd p\u0159echod<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 \u201cje skokov\u00e1 zm\u011bna makroskopick\u00fdch vlastnost\u00ed termodynamick\u00e9ho syst\u00e9mu (f\u00e1ze) p\u0159i zm\u011bn\u011b termodynamick\u00e9 prom\u011bnn\u00e9 (nap\u0159. teploty)<\/em>.\u00a0P\u0159i f\u00e1zov\u00e9m p\u0159echodu se v\u017edy n\u00e1hle m\u011bn\u00ed n\u011bkter\u00e1 makroskopick\u00e1 vlastnost l\u00e1tky, nap\u0159. hustota, tepeln\u00e1 vodivost, m\u011brn\u00e1 tepeln\u00e1 kapacita atd. Obvykle je p\u0159echod mezi f\u00e1zemi spojen s ur\u010dit\u00fdm skupensk\u00fdm teplem, tj. energi\u00ed, kterou l\u00e1tka mus\u00ed p\u0159ijmout \u010di odevzdat, aby k f\u00e1zov\u00e9mu p\u0159echodu mohlo doj\u00edt.\u201d\u00a0<\/em>11<\/a><\/sup>.\u00a0<\/em>Tj. tepeln\u00e1 reakce. Nejedn\u00e1 se o chemickou reakci.<\/p>\n

F\u00e1zov\u00fd p\u0159echod 1. druhu<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 zm\u011bna skupenstv\u00ed termodynamick\u00e9 soustavy (tj. tuhnut\u00ed resp. krystalizace nebo t\u00e1n\u00ed, vypa\u0159ov\u00e1n\u00ed nebo kondenzace, sublimace nebo desublimace); je z\u00e1visl\u00fd na teplot\u011b a na tlaku [5],<\/p>\n

F\u00e1zov\u00fd p\u0159echod 2. druhu<\/em>\u00a0<\/strong>\u2013\u00a0vznik feromagnetick\u00e9 f\u00e1ze a piezoelektrick\u00fdch vlastnost\u00ed v materi\u00e1lech p\u0159i Curieov\u011b<\/em>\u00a0(tzn. p\u0159i kter\u00e9 l\u00e1tka ztr\u00e1c\u00ed sv\u00e9 feromagnetick\u00e9 resp. piezoelektrick\u00e9 vlastnosti)\u00a0teplot\u011b a vznik supravodivosti v kovech a n\u011bkter\u00fdch dal\u0161\u00edch l\u00e1tk\u00e1ch p\u0159i n\u00edzk\u00e9 teplot\u011b T<\/em>12<\/a><\/sup>.<\/em><\/p>\n

\u00a0Fyzik\u00e1ln\u011bchemick\u00e9 d\u011bje mohou b\u00fdt spojeny s rozpou\u0161t\u011bn\u00edm nebo rozpou\u0161t\u011bn\u00edm jist\u00fdch l\u00e1tek, proto termochemie sleduje tzv. teplo rozpou\u0161t\u011bc\u00ed (\u0394HROZP<\/sub>) a teplo z\u0159e\u010fovac\u00ed (\u0394HZ\u0158E\u010eOVAC\u00cd<\/sub>).<\/p>\n

Teplo rozpou\u0161t\u011bc\u00ed<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0\u2013 teplo, kter\u00e9 soustava vym\u011bn\u00ed s okol\u00edm p\u0159i rozpou\u0161t\u011bn\u00ed l\u00e1tky p\u0159i konstantn\u00edm tlaku a teplot\u011b, tj. izotermicko \u2013 izobarick\u00fd d\u011bj:<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0 pro v\u011bt\u0161inu l\u00e1tek je\u00a0 \u0394HROZP\u00a0<\/sub>> 0, tj. soustava teplo pohlcuje a t\u00edm kles\u00e1 teplota okol\u00ed; teplo se vyu\u017eije jako energie pro rozru\u0161en\u00ed krystalov\u00e9 m\u0159\u00ed\u017eky a uvoln\u011bn\u00ed \u010d\u00e1stic,<\/p>\n

\u2013\u00a0 v n\u011bkter\u00fdch p\u0159\u00edpadech (nap\u0159. rozpou\u0161t\u011bn\u00ed NaOH ve vod\u011b) \u2206HROZP<\/sub>\u00a0< 0, tj. soustava teplo uvol\u0148uje a t\u00edm roste teplota okol\u00ed; doch\u00e1z\u00ed k tzv. solvataci iont\u016f (roz\u0161t\u011bpen\u00ed molekuly rozpou\u0161t\u011bn\u00e9 l\u00e1tky molekulami rozpou\u0161t\u011bdla).<\/p>\n

Teplo z\u0159e\u010fovac\u00ed<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0je teplo, kter\u00e9 soustava vym\u011bn\u00ed s okol\u00edm p\u0159i \u0159ed\u011bn\u00ed roztoku l\u00e1tky o koncentraci c1 na koncentraci c2, tak\u00e9 se jedn\u00e1 o izotermicko \u2013 izobarick\u00fd d\u011bj. P\u0159\u00edkladem z\u0159e\u010fovac\u00edho tepla je siln\u00e1 exotermick\u00e1 reakce p\u0159i \u0159ed\u011bn\u00ed kyselin \u201eV\u017edy p\u0159id\u00e1vat kyselinu do vody (roztoku), ale nikdy obr\u00e1cen\u011b<\/mark><\/strong><\/em>\u201c13<\/a><\/sup>.<\/p>\n

U\u00a0chemick\u00fdch reakc\u00ed<\/em><\/strong>\u00a0si pro \u00fa\u010dely p\u0159edlo\u017een\u00e9 pr\u00e1ce vysta\u010d\u00edme se z\u00e1kladn\u00edmi termochemick\u00e1mi z\u00e1kony platn\u00fdmi i pro v\u00fd\u0161e uveden\u00e9 termochemick\u00e9 d\u011bje, viz (J. BR\u00cd\u017d\u010eALA)\u00a014<\/a><\/sup>:<\/p>\n

1.\u00a0Prvn\u00ed termochemick\u00fd z\u00e1kon \u2013\u00a0<\/em>\u201eHodnota reak\u010dn\u00edho tepla p\u0159\u00edm\u00e9 a zp\u011btn\u00e9 reakce je a\u017e na znam\u00e9nko stejn\u00e1.<\/em>\u201c.<\/p>\n

2.\u00a0Druh\u00fd termochemick\u00fd z\u00e1kon<\/em>\u00a0\u2013 \u201eV\u00fdsledn\u00e9 reak\u010dn\u00ed teplo reakce je z\u00e1visl\u00e9 pouze na jej\u00edm po\u010d\u00e1te\u010dn\u00edm a koncov\u00e9m stavu. P\u0159echodn\u00e9 stavy chemick\u00e9\u00a0reakce ho neovlivn\u00ed.<\/em>\u201c.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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D\u016fle\u017eitost z hlediska bezpe\u010dnosti<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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Termodynamika se vyskytuje snad ve v\u0161ech technick\u00fdch oblastech, proto je velmi d\u016fle\u017eit\u00e1. Pochopen\u00ed z\u00e1kladn\u00ed principy termodynamiky je nutn\u00e9 pro uv\u011bdomov\u00e1n\u00ed si rizik technick\u00fdch syst\u00e9m\u016f a to tedy p\u0159edev\u0161\u00edm z hlediska bezpe\u010dnosti.<\/p>\n

Na z\u00e1kladn\u00ed fyzik\u00e1ln\u00ed principy je nutn\u00e9 myslet i v abstraktn\u00edm sv\u011bt\u011b, na kter\u00fd je \u010d\u00edm d\u00e1l v\u00edce kladen d\u016fraz v r\u00e1mci digitalizace a pr\u016fmyslu 4.0, viz\u00a0n\u00e1\u0161 p\u0159edchoz\u00ed \u010dl\u00e1nek<\/a>. U abstrakce a kybernetick\u00fdch syst\u00e9m\u016f je zapot\u0159eb\u00ed vn\u00edmat realitu, jeliko\u017e se propojuj\u00ed kybernetick\u00e9 abstraktn\u00ed prvky s fyzick\u00fdmi (kyber-fyzick\u00e9 syst\u00e9my). \u0160patn\u00e1 regulace zp\u016fsoben\u00e1 vadn\u00fdm nekvalitn\u00edm n\u00e1vrhem SW m\u016f\u017eou zp\u016fsobit extr\u00e9mn\u00ed termodynamick\u00e9 jevy a katastrofy.<\/p>\n

V dal\u0161\u00edm d\u00edle ohledn\u011b termodynamiky se zam\u011b\u0159\u00edme na extr\u00e9mn\u00ed jevy vyskytuj\u00edc\u00ed se v z\u00e1sobn\u00edc\u00edch, tj. cistern\u00e1ch anebo nap\u0159\u00edklad v jadern\u00fdch elektr\u00e1rn\u00e1ch v r\u00e1mci parn\u00edho cyklu JE.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Historie a z\u00e1klady termodynamiky Termodynamika, jako nauka o podm\u00ednk\u00e1ch vz\u00e1jemn\u00fdch p\u0159em\u011bn tepeln\u00e9 a mechanick\u00e9 energie, vznikala od 19. stolet\u00ed v […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":1131,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"","ast-site-content-layout":"","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","ast-disable-related-posts":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"categories":[184],"tags":[95,105,151,153],"class_list":["post-1063","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-fyzika-a-bezpecnost","tag-bezpecnost","tag-fyzika","tag-technologie","tag-termodynamika"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.kint.cz\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1063","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.kint.cz\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.kint.cz\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.kint.cz\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.kint.cz\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1063"}],"version-history":[{"count":18,"href":"https:\/\/www.kint.cz\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1063\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3774,"href":"https:\/\/www.kint.cz\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1063\/revisions\/3774"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.kint.cz\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/1131"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.kint.cz\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1063"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.kint.cz\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=1063"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.kint.cz\/de\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=1063"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}